On labor (Rerum Novarum by Leo XIII)

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

The Industrial Revolution that swept, first, Great Britain in the early 18th century, and then Belgium in the 1820’s, France in the 1830’s and Prussia in the 1840’s and then United States toward the end of the 18th century, transformed traditional into modern societies by industrializing the economy. It changed agrarian into urban societies. The per capita production dramatically increased as a result of the mechanization of manufacturing and other processes that were carried out in factories.

That the world benefited greatly from the fruits of the industrial revolution cannot be denied. But neither can the fact that it also brought misery to numerous souls be discounted. From the eyes of economic optimists, the social effects of industrialization may be summed up as short-term misery for long-term gain. However it is called, it did make many men, women and even children suffer.

Factory labor was often more disciplined, tedious and dangerous than work in agriculture or domestic industry. Women and, until the introduction of child labor laws in most countries by the early 20th century, children were exploited. Many skills were rendered obsolete and made workers dependent upon fluctuating market forces. People often felt that they had less control over their destiny as machines, although created by humans, seemed to become their masters.
Life in the 19th century city was unpleasant. The environment was often polluted with filth and smoke, and housing conditions were crowded and unsanitary. Basic amenities such as water supply and sewage disposal were deficient, and as a result, disease and death rates were high. So common were these conditions that it was claimed all industrial cities were the same, whatever the country.

Two developments improved conditions. First, both national and local governments, perhaps fearful of social revolution, began to introduce ameliorative measures such as factory legislation, sanitary provisions and social welfare programs. Second. The workers themselves often found ways to improve their working conditions. Finding strength through common experience, they developed labor unions and political organizations to protect their interests and achieve a greater share of the profits of industry.

It was against this background that Pope Leo XIII wrote and published Rerum Novarum, The Condition of the Working Class, his first encyclical on social problems, on May 15, 1891. It took more than a year to complete.


THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASS

The Situation of the Poor and Workers

The moral degeneration that came with the industrial revolution paved the way for the exploitation of workers. Because they were not protected by laws or associations, the workers were easy prey to the greed of the businessmen who were only concerned with fattening their monetary output. Such greed and the production process as a whole created a situation where the very few rich enslaved the masses of workers who did not own the means of production; hence, the sad condition of labor.

The evils that issued from that greed of unrestrained competition were pressing cruelly on the working classes. A remedy needed to be found quickly.

The Socialist Solution and the Defense of Private Property

The Socialists saw the abolition of private property and the award of the same to the State as the solution to the problems of the suffering workers and (3, 7). But this solution was futile because it was unjust, and it would ultimately be the workers themselves suffering from such remedy. Rerum Novarum condemned the proposal of the Socialists of putting private ownership to rest and defended the rights of workers to possess goods through their hard work. This is a natural right of men and women. Curtailing such right is a violation against the rights of lawful owners (8, 9, 23).

The right to possess private property. As effect follows cause, so it is just that the effects of labor should belong to the laborer. The right of private property, then, is found in the study of nature, in the law of nature, in the laws of peoples from the beginning of history, and in the divine law, “Thou shall not covet.”

A man is naturally entitled to the fruit of his labor. This is precisely why he works: to acquire property. Relative to this right is the right of disposal. Because he owns his property, he also has the right to dispose what he owns according to his will. The Socialists struck at this right by depriving the worker of the right of disposal as well as of ownership in attempting to transfer all he owns to the State.

The right to use and to possess. It is not enough for man to have the right to use property. He must also have the right to own it. Man, unlike the animal, has reason; he has the capacity to foresee. Not only must he have things for temporary use, like the animal, but also for future use.

Man’s personality and the property right. Man holds his claim to the earth by his own industry and the laws of the individual peoples. Everyone, either directly or indirectly, lives of the soil. The earth only yields its wealth to man’s labor and skill. This is how he makes it his own. On that portion he cultivates he leaves the impress of his personality. It belongs to him because of what he has done with it.

The argument from man’s social and domestic obligations. Ownership is not only an individual right, but belongs to man as head of the family. As head of the family his duty is to provide not only present but also future family needs. In no other way can he meet his obligations as head of the family except by the ownership of property which he can transmit to his children. The family has at least equal rights with the State to provide for its own needs. As it is prior in existence, so are its rights prior. For man does not come from the State. The State comes from man, who freely made it.

The State has no right to invade the family. However, in case of extreme necessity the family has the right to call on the State for aid, for each family is part of the State. Only when the family fails in its duties does the State acquire the right to intervene. Be that as it may, the State, in intervening, should only regulate, strengthen and safeguard family interests. Beyond this, the State loses its authority. It has no right to abolish or absorb paternal authority.

The error of Socialism is that it sets aside paternal authority in the family. And this runs contrary to natural justice for such usurpation results in slavery. It levels man down to the role of a mere part in a machine. Socialism, by advocating the community of goods, would injure those it intends to benefit, by violating their natural rights. Its consequence would be a state of injustice, confusion, disorder, slavery.

Thomas Aquinas on private property. For Thomas Aquinas, it is lawful for man to hold private property. In fact, it is necessary for the carrying on of human life. However, concerning the use of one’s possessions, Aquinas holds that man should not consider his outward possessions as his own, but as common to all, so as to share them without difficulty when others are in need. He clarifies, saying, that one is not required to distribute what he has when he has not kept up becomingly his condition. But once his necessities and those of his family have been supplied, it becomes his duty to give to those who are wanting (19).

Jesus on the use of money. The Lord Jesus pronounces on the right use of money. The use of money should be guided by charity. It is a duty of charity to give to those who lack after one has satisfied his needs and his family’s. Jesus strongly says, “As long as you did it to the least of my brethren, you did it to me.” Hence, whatever that one has received from the providence of God has been given him not only to perfect his nature but also for the benefit of others. It is giving according to one’s means. (19)

The Solution of Rerum Novarum

Pope Leo XIII offered a three-fold solution to the problem of poverty and, specifically, of labor. He thought that the problem would only be remedied if the Church, the State, and the employers and the workers worked together and each conscientiously did its duties. But he put primacy on the role of the Church. For him, no remedy could be found apart from Religion, from the Church.

The Role of the Church

The Church has the right to speak out on social issues, for these affect religion and morality. (24) She enlightens by her teachings and directs human conduct by her precepts. The Pope, for his part, has the responsibility to pronounce on the question of labor because he is the Supreme Teacher of Christ’s revealed truth. As the Supreme Interpreter of divine law, he must voice the principles that must govern the relationship between capital and labor.

All men are created equal in regard to the ultimate end, but they are not born equal. This fact of inequality does not preclude God’s providence. Neither is it correct to believe that class is naturally hostile to another class. Each needs the other. Capital cannot do without labor, nor labor without capital. The Church, through the use of Gospel principles, can help reconcile and unite classes. She promotes harmony among the social classes, i.e. employers and workers, rich and poor. (25, 27, 23, 41)

The Church can educate people to act justly. (40, 41) For instance, the encyclical teaches that workers are not to be treated as slaves; justice demands that the dignity of the human person must be respected. To use men and women for profit is inhuman and shameful. It is wrong to see them merely as muscle and energy. (31)

The Church also teaches that this present life is only a preparation for eternal life. The things of the earth can only be valued correctly when viewed taking into consideration the life to come. This is because without the idea of futurity, the very notion of what is good and right perishes. These things must be used wisely, “justly” and “charitably.” The Lord Jesus desired that those who have more be inclined to generosity. He wanted every one to remember that all share the same Father in heaven, who alone can satisfy every need. (21)

The Role of the State

The State is bound by laws to serve the common good; this is the reason for its existence. Its primary duty is justice: justice for all or distributive justice. It should protect the well-being of all and be concerned with the interests of every one. (48, 49, 71)

The State must also defend and promote the rights of individual families. (21) It can interfere only when the protection of individuals and the common good warrants it. But it should allow the individual and the family free action, unless such action directly violates the common good. (52)

Basically, the rights of every man must be religiously respected, anytime, anywhere. It should protect every person’s private property. In fact, this is the chief thing that the State must make secure: it should support the right to property and to possess private property. (55, 56) However, it must pay special attention to the weak and the poor because they do not have the means to protect themselves. (52)

The State must also uphold the rights of associations or unions and the religious. (72, 73, 75)

The Role of Workers and Employers

No violence. The role of the worker and the poor is to work well. He is not to damage the property of his employer, for any act against such property would be a violation of the employer’s right to his property. Even in protecting his own interests, the worker should avoid violence. (30)

The Dignity of workers. The employers and the rich must always keep in mind that their workers are human beings whose dignity ought to be upheld. Therefore, they should treat them as mere machines, as mere slaves. They would do them injustice if they ground them by excessive labor stupefying their minds and wearing out their bodies. They should also allow them to see to their families and religious obligations. Moreover, they should give work that is suitable to the workers’ strength, sex and age, and consider the place and time of work. As already enunciated, the workers are not machines. Their powers are limited, and beyond their limits they cannot go. Also, the savings of the workers must be protected. The Pope urges the rich to give to the poor after their own needs have been met. (31, 32)

On just wage. But the most important duty of the employer is to give the worker his just wage. Free consent on the part of the worker does not determine a just wage. There are two attributes of the labor of the worker: personal and necessary. By personal is meant that labor (or the exertion of individual power, belongs to the person who puts it forth. Hence, it is within his choice to accept any rate of wage or even not to accept remuneration. But labor is also necessary. Because man needs to procure a decent livelihood, it follows that a just wage must procure that decent living. The employer should remember that he is never allowed to oppress the workers for his profit. (34, 32)

Mutual implication. Each party needs the other; the employers need the workers, the workers need the employers. Labor needs capital and capital needs labor, to produce. Labor and capital are the wheels to progress.

The workers’ unions. It is natural for workers, men and women alike, to join unions that benefit them; recognizing their own weakness, they realize the need to seek help from others. The encyclical deems it an advantage for workers to form associations or unions. Associations or unions help promote mutual understanding and cooperation. They help individual members enjoy an increase in the goods of body, soul and prosperity. Together, the members assume a louder voice and are able to fight for their rights better. (72, 73, 75)

The Principles of Rerum Novarum

A few guiding principles of Rerum Novarum can be listed:
i. The ability to reason is part of human nature. Humans rule themselves by reason. Therefore, each person can see the things needed for the present and the future. So, each person has the right to possess things to be used.
ii. Workers have the right to the fruits of their work, but should use them to benefit all.
iii. All people have the right to private property, yet private property must serve the common good.
iv. Men and women should use their possessions to meet the demands of their life. When these have been fulfilled, it is their duty to give to the poor.
v. There is a difference between the just ownership of money and the just use of money.
vi. Laws are to be obeyed only in so far as they do not go against right reason and the eternal law of God.
vii. Natural inequalities exist among people, but God has gifted all with equal dignity. This benefits both individuals and community: community life needs the different talents and services of individuals.
viii. Since all have been created and redeemed by God, divine grace and the goods of nature belong equally to all.
ix. Common good is the end of any society. Therefore, each and everyone has the right to participate in his society.


CONCLUDING REMARKS

The publication of Leo XIII’s Rerum Novarum increased the Church’s awareness of the miserable living and working conditions and the unjust wages of workers.

There is no doubt that Rerum Novarum played a positive role among Catholics. It has also influenced the social teaching of the Church from that time on.